Religion Is An Act Of Power, By Durkheim, Karl Marx, And...

Religion in the contemporary world Introduction Sociology of religion is the study of the views, practices and structural forms of religion using the tools and methods of the discipline of sociology. Religion and power are both inseparable, as defining religion is an act of power. Academics, political figures, lawyers and religious leaders all have their followers, who all have interests of how religion is defined. This essay will follow up on sociological religion from the views of Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Ulrich Beck last but not the least Edward Burnett Tylor. These sociologists searched for comparable views and practices in all groups of cultures, especially those from basic backgrounds, irrespective to the moment and where it was based. They mainly depend on finding that were made by preachers, inventers, and also majestic servants. These were all individuals who had a religious background themselves, this is because they could look at religion from the inside. Main body Emile Durkheim Durkheim was an academic sociologist, he was born on April 15, 1858. He was the son of a Jewish leader who also descended from a long line of Jewish leaders, after a few years of thought he decided that he would follow the custom that has been going for years of being s rabbi. He then studied Hebrew, the Old Testament, and the Talmud, and also at the same time following the regular course of instruction in schools. After his custom Jewish confirmation at the age of thirteen,Show MoreRelatedGlobalization and It Effects on Cultural Integration: the Case of the Czech Republic.27217 Words   |  109 Pagesglobalization as â€Å"to render global† or â€Å"the act of globalizing† cited in Malcolm Walters (2001:2). The concept globalization has now being use by many academics and there has been a debate on when the concept of globalization actually began. There are some who have perceived the concept of globalization has been in to existence before this period. Thus, the below mentioned are some of the definitions of globalization posed by various social science theorists. Marx (1977) is considered by social theoristsRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagespearsoned.co.uk First published 2007  © Pearson Education Limited 2007 The rights of Joanne Duberley, Phil Johnson and John McAuley to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission

Notes On Sources Of Power - 1007 Words

Sources of Power in my Life Experience is a key to knowledge. It is a type of power one can simply acquire by observing, encountering, or either undergoing an event. It is a type of power that I have used throughout my life. Expert power. The process of experiencing is when one obtains a skill or a piece of knowledge from an event in their life which can later be utilized in their life. As we gain experience, we become experts in a specific role to which we can help others meet their goals. Experience doesn t just mean being someone for an extended period of time, it could mean having to go through struggles in their life or just by making a small mistake that they have been through already. Experience is something that we all have†¦show more content†¦We have freedom of speech so therefore, we have the rights to fight for ourselves using personal power. We handle our emotions and feelings through emotional intelligence that we develop as we grow up. As a matter of fact, this type of power is actually more innovative than other forms of power because it comes from our own energy. People use personal power as an advantage such as possessing good traits and characteristics to influence and lead others and gain their trust. For example, we would want to vote for a president who has the most personal power. This power is a combination of coercive and empowerment. It s empowerment because it comes from our own energy and coercive because we have the ability to persuade others using personal power. Comparatively, positional power also has a great significance use in our daily lives. Police officers, lawyers, teachers, parents, managers and even just a normal person has some sort of positional power. This common power is specified as having authority and influence over another person. A person with positional power is coercive, which means they have power over others. For example, parents can make their children do something that they don t want to do since the child wouldn t have any choice. A police officer can also use their title as an advantage to have authority over us which means if we disobey them, there will be consequences, simply because of their positional power. The differenceShow MoreRelatedA Research Paper Rubric Standard1025 Words   |  5 PagesDocumentation Understands and applies research skills All sources are documented with excellent attention to detail on note sheets, the Works Cited page and in the Internal Documentation. Most sources are documented with minimal format errors on note sheets, Works Cited page and in the Internal Documentation. Some sources are documented with minimal format errors on the notes, Works Cited page and in the Internal Documentation. 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A Theory of African American Offending

Question: Describe about A Theory of African American Offending for Race, Racism, And Crime ? Answer: 1. Introduction Crime that is related with violence generally comes up through media. This is because such crimes create sensible affect in the minds of the citizen. It has been found that the audiences like those particular types of crimes that represent the negative orthodoxy of the society. People like violence. Certain crimes that are related to the corporate world are actually more severe and desperate that requires more concern of the society as well as the media. These kinds of crimes are too much insidious to the organization. As a result the government is not able to tackle such crimes. White Collar crimes are too much related with the core department of the organization where intervention of the government is much tough. The term "white collar crime" was introduced by Edwin H. Sutherland in 1939, emphasizing the fact that criminal activity in the United States was to a great extent, taking place in everyday business by respectable individuals of high socio-economic status. The main feature of the crime was violation of trust, carried out while the offender performed his occupational activities. The National White Collar Crime Center in 1996, defined the term as "illegal or unethical acts that violate fiduciary responsibility or public trust, committed by an individual or organization, usually during the course of legitimate occupational activity. It has been found that the Government has introduced certain laws that compile the individuals to maintain certain activities with the limit, but all goes in vain when ones personal interest crosses the border. Such kinds of crimes are so much sophisticated. Convicted individual belongs to high society who may be director, manager or the departmental coordinator. These individuals are too much strong and taking action against them is so much hard. Thus it is can be said that the Government is not doing enough to tackle and control white collar crime. This essay will discuss about white collar crime, its types and impact and why government is not able to tackle white collar crime. White Collar Crime White collar crime is a type of crime that is committed by certain individuals that mostly relates to financial gain (Arnulf Gottschalk, 2012). A typical white collar crime generally consists of individuals who are related to corporate world. They are generally being the higher authority responsible persons. The white collar criminals can be business manager, office executives, fund manager, account head executives or other executives(Peterson, 2013). The white collar criminals are generally held accused by the whistle blowers in the organization, who may be forensic accountants or auditors (Miller, 2012). The entities who are in charge of the investigation of white collar crime are FBI, Exchange Commission and Securities. The National Association of securities also deals with the investigation of white collar crimes (Gottschalk Glas, 2013). Some examples of white collar convicted criminals are Kenneth Lay, Bernard Madoff and Bernard Ebbers. Certain examples of white collar crimes are securities fraud that includes investment information misinterpretation, embezzlement that deals with fraud misuse. Types of White Collar Crimes There are eight white collar crimes committed by the corporate individuals. The National White Collar Crime Center in 1996, defined the term as "illegal or unethical acts that violate fiduciary responsibility or public trust, committed by an individual or organization, usually during the course of legitimate occupational activity, by persons of high or respectable social status for personal or organizational gain" White Collar Crimes are securities related, Bankruptcy fraud, Governmental fraud, Consumer fraud, Insurance fraud, Tax fraud, Bribery Fraud, Corruption fraud, Political fraud and Insider trading fraud(Borrion, 2013). Theories of causality about types of fraud Security related crimes are highlighted by the change of sheer size in the equities market (Braithwaite, 2010). There are four kinds of offenses that include churning, trading, manipulation of stock and operation in boiler room. Stock manipulation over the counter market is viewed as pink sheets where the stocks are traded in very low price all over the market(Walters, 2013). Brokers give misleading ideas to the buyers that the price of the stocks is going to rise within a couple of days. Stock manipulators run the stock by misleading and deception technique to seduce uninformed individuals to buy shares which are often financed poorly (Larsson, 2013). There are much significant federal as well as state legislation that passes to curtail the operations but still the manipulations continues. The financial obligations that involve an insolvent person or that concerned organization that files bankruptcy petition which results in property and financial obligations (Gottschalk Glas, 2013). Unscrupulous persons have many reasons to commit fraud related to bankruptcy. The most common types of bankruptcy frauds are similar name scam old company and new company scam. From the past people are constantly getting deviated by fascination of crime and its deviance which are actually caused by them. The act of media shows the insatiable interest in regards to crime that is associated with the societies (Pruyt Kwakkel, 2014). It has become our daily news report that consists of crime on all aspects in regards to movies, games, sports etc. these factors has led to raise questions about the media about its act on society(Barlow, 2013). This has also raised the question of relationship between media and crime about who enhances the actual news. Sometimes it is found that for making the news quite attractive, media represents the matter into a more diversified way where it actual news is quite different (Moore Recker, 2013). Here raises the question on the act of media. What is the media actually doing? For increasing their TRP, the media is proving vague news to the audiences. Moreover media is that particular aspect of society which is the most effectiv e means to share information among citizens. Media the most effective and fastest means of sharing news that might or might not be vague is predominant in everyones feelings (Bierie, 2015). Insider trading is a kind of unfair advantage that uses material and non-public financial information to obtain unfair trading securities as an advantage(Lpez, 2012). The person who has the access to corporate information that is confidential can make significant earning by buying and selling of the stocks. Before the initial public offering if the individual sells the shares to other company before merging, this result to illegal activity which is insider trading. Social, Economic and Physical Impact of White Collar Crime White collar crime is been defined recently as the utilization of power in significant position for illegal gain resulting in harming or inducing damage to victims. This can be measured by physical harm or financial loss that damages the moral climate of the community. Many economists believe that the impact of white collar crime is by far the most significant crime that erodes both the society as well as the economic status of the organization. The employees get endangered through unsafe working conditions, customers get injured due to poor quality products which may be quite dangerous at certain times. This also cause pollution problem to the environment. Such a crime results to raise the cost of doing business that raises the price of the customer. That also decreases the efficiency of a business process and creates a negative impact on the environment. White collar crime impacts on stock market to lower the efficiency of organization. Victims and Victimology The true fact is that the public does not take into care about these types of crimes. This is because most of such crimes are insidious to the organization. The crimes are much confidential unless whistle blowers take those into account (Burrows, 2013). At most of the cases the government cannot directly indulge into white collar crimes as the crimes are mostly in dealt with the sophisticated higher authority individuals. And so the rules and regulations though are much tough for every individual acts under-actively for financially strong individuals (Farrell, 2013). This shows that the government is lacking behind in controlling such crimes. These types of crimes are only taken into account when a large volume of finance is associated with. Otherwise the corrupted individual gets advantage of the unauthorized financial assistance that no one takes into account. The main difference between real crime and white collar crime is that there is no threat of violence and no victim who can be physically identified. And due to this reason the government cannot take any strict action that can be such much concrete at the uppermost level. Conclusion At most of the cases it is found that the whistleblowers from within the organization are raising concern about the corporate crimes. It has been also found that the individuals who raise their voice against corporate crimes generally do so for fulfilling their motives. At most of the cases such individuals are given handsome money for keeping their mouth shut. The actual fact is that to act against crime that too of corporate level requires much strength and courage. At most of the cases it is found that the whistleblower gets convicted as they are not able to fight against crime and ultimately act of crimes turns against them. Thus to act against white collar crime and corporate level crime is much tough. Government needs to look after these crimes by taking more concern. Strict laws needs to be fulfilled. Governmental laws must reach to the root levels of all organizations. Any crime is a big crime. Associated convicted needs to be treated severely and has to provide high penalty or otherwise loss of job. Punishment level must be raised setting upa kind of example to inculcate fear among others minds so that the individuals think twice before proceeding in corruption. For fighting against sophisticated crime, powerful body needs to come in force and such akind of body is the Government and its laws that must be proactive. 2. Introduction Public do not receive fair treatment from agents and agencies. Criminal justice is the system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts. There has been a common problem prevailing from the decades that the crime or the criminal behavior that is created by the women are not that much serious. But the true fact is that offends created by the women are constantly increasing. The rank in women inmates are rising much faster than the male counterparts which is breaking the mask of trend. This essay will discuss about the reasons why individuals do not receive fair treatments from agents and agencies. Criminal Justice System Criminal justice system consists of several agencies as well as processes which has been established by the government. This system results in fighting against injustice like social crimes associated with men and women (Hawkins, 2014). The convicted is punishable and may be asked to provide penalty by such agencies. Different jurisdictions are found to have different laws to restore justice in the society. According to Brown Saeed (2014), when individuals are victimized due to violence they are too much reluctant to call the police. They also do not feel to call the agencies. Even they do not feel in calling the mainstream news channel or other social media. Women those are in dealt with prostitution do not feel in calling the police when they are raped. It is only found that women violence comes to forefront when only they are getting abused by their partners or when they are victimized in the schools or even in such a scenario where goods are getting stolen due to robbery. Thus there are many crimes that are associated with women but they are getting masked. Only due to casual ignorance and improper justice does not put that crime to white light or otherwise there are several cases that if are properly judged can deliver the reports to show the crimes associated with women. According to Karpantschof (2014), still at most of the cases it is found that the women are not getting justice as the agents and agencies are corrupted. Like the news channels tries to seek that particular activities that are much unique so that audiences are attracted to their news channel. Common criminal injustice is getting covered. Sophisticated crimes are only coming to forefront. At most of the cases the individual who was deprived in the act found to be convicted whereas she has not done any crime. In this way crime which is more diversified nowadays is associated with many injustice from agencies that are far to be noticed. Crime related with women is surveyed to be more severe. It is found that the men involves certain women to indulge into criminal activities as suspecting to women is limited. These results in more criminal offence associated with women. Today in several newspapers it is found that women are convicted in cases related to airport terminals where they expor t drugs and other weapons. But in most cases the women get out or pass out from getting caught at the terminal as laws related to checking of women are more lenient. Moreover it has been found that due to poverty and lack of proper survive women get involved into criminal activity as money earned by unlawful activities are easier. In the past decades the crime was concentrated more towards to men. But with the rise in population criminal activities are getting associated with women and justice is delayed at most cases. The crimes that are related to male gender are considered to be much serious. They eventually come to forefront at every time. Crimes associated with men happen due to many reasons like poverty, illiteracy, violence and threat, personal experience etc. According to Mastors Siers (2014), at several times men and boys does not get proper justification from agent and agencies. This mainly happens as they fear to contact the agencies. So records say they are not properly guided by the agencies as they require funds to get justice. But when they do not provide money, their justice is getting delayed. It has been also found that if agents and agencies like news channel and other media are contacted then the true matter of crime that has actually occurred against them turns out against that particular individual and so the justice is delayed or else sometimes the crime is not justified. According to McCauley, (2011), justice delayed means injustice. The present explosion in regards to crime and incarceration is associated with substantial growth in size and scope that provides negative consequences which are both collateral and direct. This link of macro systems that exist in relation to micro dynamics that lives in the palm of police sc rutiny and economic marginalization is a matter of concern. Political disenfranchisement being one of the factors that deals with macro systems. The race theory named as critical is the guide for praxis and pedagogy that explores the racist and founds classist in regards to current macro and micro injustice. The radicalization of crime includes the factors like the roots of UK laws, mass imprisonment, criminal justice, classism and racism. According to Arnold (2014), in this modern world with the rise of population, the integration of crime starts from the teenager. Thus the inculcation of crime happens to be on the minds of the youth who are deviated with some strong feelings associated with the motive of doing some justice to the society. But the fact s what one feels right from oneself may not be true and justified for the other individual. So the deprives individual files a case against who harms the deprived. And so criminality extends further. One motive is hurt and the one indulges into more severe crime against the society. Thus such inculcation of crime starts to extend from the youth. Men though are responsible for several crimes that are against society due to several intoxications. Sometimes it is found that the frustrated men who are deprived from getting what they actually were supposed to get indulged into crime where they find satisfaction. They find that by hurting others they can mitigate their frustr ation. In this way crime extends. At certain cases it is found that common men who were never ever associated with any crime happen to get associated with criminal offence due to the act of corruption. Thus here also the normal common mans sentiment is hurt and so he finds to involve into criminal activities so that one or the other way he gets justice. And in order to get justice he involves harming other individuals where he finds satisfaction. According to McCauley, (2011) it has been found that as public do not receive fair treatment from agents and agencies, small agencies like ASBO, CRIMBO and CRASBO were developed. According to Antisocial behavior order (ASBO), anyone who is at the age of ten can be ordered under it if they have behaved antisocially. The behaviors include- threatening behavior, drunken violence, graffiti and vandalism and also like playing music loudly at night. If an individual gets ASBO, it means that he will not be allowed to a number of things like drinking anywhere in the street, time spending with certain individuals who are considered trouble making in the society or going at any particular place. The primary aim of CRASBO is protecting the public from anti-social behavior. CRASBO is designed in encouraging the public to be an individual in active participation to report any kind of anti-social behavior which will help ion building and protecting the community. The main difference between ASBO a nd CRASBO is that the later is made to be on the back of any criminal conviction. The terms and conditions associated with CRIMBO are- using abusive language that is threatening or certain kinds of behavior that causes harassment. This also includes certain individual to not enter into exclusion zone and that to remain in licensed premises. CRIMBOS are generally associated in dealing with persistent to serious offenders to make the society quite healthy. This includes in making the order to be more concrete in preventing the person to offend again in the future. Thus we can see that ASBO, CRIMBO and CRASBO deals with the criminalization of lower class to irradiate the primary source of criminalization that can in future stop the further act of higher violence that will proceed to crime. According to Lee (2012), fair treatment can be done if concern is taken place at the root level. UK has taken several steps for fair treatment but certain crime that is in consideration to higher society individual takes a longer time to get justice. According to Kruglanski et al. (2014) the urban conflict was much widespread which is characterized in many inner-city areas like London, Bristol, Liverpool and Manchester in the early and mid-period of 1980. Conclusion With the progress of several agents and agencies, the mitigation of crime and enhancement of justice in accordance to several agents and agencies are coming within a balance, though it cannot be justified totally but still justification at the highest level can be reached in mare future. A report noted that racism was institutional. Race is not about government, but about the associated hearts of the people. It would be absurd to deny the fact that the degree of racism infects to the deep and in multiple ways to national psyche. The race relegation matters to trends of hearts to renders to increase difficulty in identifying deep structural entrenchment in racism that is contemporary. Reference List Arnold, T. (2014). Book Review: A Theory Of African American Offending: Race, Racism, And Crime. International Criminal Justice Review, 24(1), 107-109. doi:10.1177/1057567714526233 Arnulf, J., Gottschalk, P. (2012). Heroic Leaders as White-Collar Criminals: An Empirical Study. Journal Of Investigative Psychology And Offender Profiling, 10(1), 96-113. doi:10.1002/jip.1370 Barlow, C. (2013). Book review: Christiana Gregoriou (ed.), Constructing Crime: Discourse and Cultural Representations of Crime and 'Deviance'. Crime, Media, Culture, 9(3), 321-323. doi:10.1177/1741659013498966 Bierie, D. (2015). Assault of Police. Crime Delinquency. doi:10.1177/0011128715574977 Borrion, H. (2013). Quality assurance in crime scripting. Crime Sci, 2(1), 6. doi:10.1186/2193-7680-2-6 Braithwaite, J. (2010). Diagnostics of white-collar crime prevention. Criminology Public Policy, 9(3), 621-626. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00655.x Brown, K., Saeed, T. (2014). Radicalization and counter-radicalization at British universities: Muslim encounters and alternatives. Ethnic And Racial Studies, 38(11), 1952-1968. doi:10.1080/01419870.2014.911343 Burrows, J. (2013). Victim awareness: Re-examining a probation fundamental. Probation Journal, 60(4), 383-399. doi:10.1177/0264550513502250 Farrell, G. (2013). Five tests for a theory of the crime drop. Crime Sci, 2(1), 5. doi:10.1186/2193-7680-2-5 Gottschalk, P., Glas, L. (2013). Corporate Crime Does Pay! The Relationship between Financial Crime and Imprisonment in White-Collar Crime. International Letters Of Social And Humanistic Sciences, 5, 63-78. doi:10.18052/www.scipress.com/ilshs.5.63 Gottschalk, P., Glas, L. (2013). Gender in White-Collar Crime: An Empirical Study of Pink-Collar Criminals. International Letters Of Social And Humanistic Sciences, 4, 22-34. doi:10.18052/www.scipress.com/ilshs.4.22 Hawkins, D. (2014). Book Review: A theory of African American offending: Race, racism and crime. Race And Justice, 4(2), 175-180. doi:10.1177/2153368714526416 Karpantschof, R. (2014). Violence that matters! Radicalization and de-radicalization of leftist, urban movements Denmark 19812011. Behavioral Sciences Of Terrorism And Political Aggression, 7(1), 35-52. doi:10.1080/19434472.2014.977330 Kruglanski, A., Gelfand, M., Blanger, J., Sheveland, A., Hetiarachchi, M., Gunaratna, R. (2014). The Psychology of Radicalization and Deradicalization: How Significance Quest Impacts Violent Extremism. Political Psychology, 35, 69-93. doi:10.1111/pops.12163 Larsson, D. (2013). The Reaction Towards White Collar Crime: When White Collar Crime Matters. TOCRIJ, 6(1), 1-9. doi:10.2174/1874917801306010001 Lee, J. (2012). Book Review: A Theory of African American Offending: Race, Racism, and Crime. Criminal Justice Review, 37(3), 408-410. doi:10.1177/0734016811433823 Lpez, M. (2012). Racism, Violence and Identity. Wasafiri, 27(3), 57-61. doi:10.1080/02690055.2012.690639 Mastors, E., Siers, R. (2014). Omar al-Hammami: A Case Study in Radicalization. Behav. Sci. Law, 32(3), 377-388. doi:10.1002/bsl.2108 McCauley, C. (2011). Testing Theories of Radicalization in Polls of U.S. Muslims. Analyses Of Social Issues And Public Policy, 12(1), 296-311. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2011.01261.x Miller, A. (2012). White coats and white-collar crime. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 185(1), E19-E20. doi:10.1503/cmaj.109-4346 Moore, M., Recker, N. (2013). Social Capital, Type of Crime, and Social Control. Crime Delinquency. doi:10.1177/0011128713510082 Peterson, R. (2013). Victim Engagement in the Prosecution of Domestic Violence Cases. Criminology Public Policy, 12(3), 473-480. doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12054 Pruyt, E., Kwakkel, J. (2014). Radicalization under deep uncertainty: a multi-model exploration of activism, extremism, and terrorism. System Dynamics Review, 30(1-2), 1-28. doi:10.1002/sdr.1510 Walters, G. (2013). Cognitive Mediation of Crime Continuity: A Causal Mediation Analysis of the Past Crime-Future Crime Relationship. Crime Delinquency. doi:10.1177/0011128712470987

Power of Panopticism Essays - Michel Foucault, Philosophy

Power of Panopticism In his essay "Panopticism," Michel Foucault introduces the Panopticon structure as proof of modern society tending toward efficient disciplinary mechanisms. Starting with his example of the strict, intensely organized measures that are taken in a typical 17th-century plague-stricken town, Foucault describes how the town employed constant surveillance techniques, centralized a hierarchy of authorities to survey households, partitioned individual structures to impose certain behavior, and record current information about each individual. As society has progressed, Foucault explains, these practices have expanded into other institutions such as hospitals, schools, prisons and asylums. Bentham's Panopticon embodies such disciplinary techniques. Inside a tall, central tower amidst the many cells, a surveyor can see all the inhabitants "without ever being seen" (Foucault 376). The individuals are aware they that may be observed at the moment, but cannot ever be sure. This implementation of power is thus greatly effective because it reduces the amount of people needed to operate the system, while maximizing the number of people it can watch over. Power becomes more economic to maintain. Intervention, and even better, prevention, can be exercised. Panopticism is not the link between power and function, says Foucault, but rather "it is a way of making power relations function in a function" (381); that is, power and function do not operate discretely, but within each other. More importantly, since the spectator inside t he tower is not unique but open to the general public, people have license to conduct experiments in spying on others. "The Panopticon functions as a kind of laboratory of power," Foucault declares; indeed, much knowledge can be ascertained by "penetra[ting] into men's behavior" (379). Foucault introduces the modern police force as an example of Panopticism. He explains that the development of a more centralized police force in the late eighteenth century stemmed from the need of sovereigns to maintain a sort of surveillance over all miniature details. With a mobilized, invisible force stretched from even the most "extreme limits", it becomes possible to extend constant supervision "to reach the most elementary particle" (Foucault 386). The organization of the police became the vehicle in which political power could keep a "permanent, exhaustive, omnipresent" gaze on the entire population; a regular Panopticon for the city. Beyond duties of surveillance, the police would also pursue and punish criminals, plotters, and opposition movements as a way to demonstrate the consequences of bad conduct; fear would then keep the population as pure as possible and "accustomed to order and obedience" (Foucault 387). As Foucault remarked, many disciplinary mechanisms and practices are still kept alive in today's modern institutions. The Patriot Act is one example; one highly controversial provision of the act allows the FBI to acquire personal records (such as email, documents, library records) for the purposes of gathering intelligence of possible terrorist activities. Like Foucault's example of the police force, the Patriot Act is enables government agencies (operating in a fashion invisible to the general public) to seize personal information, to enhance their knowledge of each individual and his or her own behavior. As these actions cannot be anticipated, the government maintains a piercing "gaze" on the population, who more and more exhibit disciplined behavior, with the knowledge that the government is watching them at any given moment in time. The punishment for terrorist activities, whether suspected or misunderstood, makes the people fearful of their actions and therefore more on thei r guard. Although we cannot be fully aware of the extent of the government's activities, we can be sure their collection of intelligence enables them to have an colossal knowledge of the population, to use at their own disposal - whether for other activities, or experiments - just as in the Panopticon, government officials are working from "a privileged place for analyzing with complete certainty the transformations that may be obtained from them" (Foucault 379). Today's society demonstrates how these disciplinary techniques are being increasingly implemented in order to fashion a more obedient and efficient people. It is becoming more and more easy for leaders to use undesirable situations (like pandemics, or a criminal population, or international terrorism) as a pretext to establish invisible hierarchical surveillance forces, use "regulation into even the smallest details of everyday life"

How Opportunity Structures Affect Your Life

How Opportunity Structures Affect Your Life The term opportunity structure refers to the fact that the opportunities available to people in any given society or institution are shaped by the social organization and structure of that entity. Typically within a society or institution, there are certain opportunity structures that are considered traditional and legitimate, like achieving economic success by pursuing education in order to get a good job, or dedicating oneself to a form of art, craft, or performance in order to make a living in that field. These opportunity structures, and untraditional and illegitimate ones too,  provide sets of rules that one is supposed to follow in order to achieve cultural expectations of success. When traditional and legitimate opportunity structures fail to allow for success, people may pursue success via untraditional and illegitimate ones. Overview Opportunity structure is a term and theoretical concept developed by American sociologists Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd B. Ohlin, and presented in their book  Delinquency and Opportunity, published in 1960. Their work was inspired by and built upon sociologist Robert Mertons theory of deviance, and in particular, his structural strain theory. With this theory Merton suggested that a person experiences strain when the conditions of society do not allow one to attain the goals that the society socializes us to desire and work toward. For example, the goal of economic success is a common one in U.S. society, and the cultural expectation is that one would work hard to pursue education, and then work hard in a job or career in order to attain this. However, with an underfunded public education system, high cost of higher education and burdens of student loans, and an economy dominated by service sector jobs, U.S. society today fails to provide the majority of the population with adequat e, legitimate means to attain this kind of success. Cloward and Ohlin build on this theory with the concept of opportunity structures by pointing out there are a variety of pathways to success available in society. Some are traditional and legitimate, like education and career, but when those fail, a person is likely to pursue pathways provided by other kinds of opportunity structures. The conditions described above, of inadequate education and job availability, are elements that can serve to block a particular opportunity structure for certain segments of the population, like kids to attend underfunded and segregated public schools in poor districts, or young adults who have to work to support their families and thus do not have the time or money to attend college. Other social phenomena, like racism, classism, and sexism, among others, can block a structure for certain individuals, while still enabling others to find success through it. For example, white students might thrive in a particular classroom while black students do not, because teachers tend to underestimate the intelligence of black kids, and to punish them more harshly, both of which hinder their ability to succeed in the classroom. Relevance in Society Cloward and Ohlin use this theory to explain deviance by suggesting that when traditional and legitimate opportunity structures are blocked, people sometimes pursue success through others that are  considered nontraditional and illegitimate, like getting involved in a network of petty or major criminals in order to make money, or by pursuing grey and black market occupations like sex worker or drug dealer, among others.

Upcoming Changes to Interstate Driving Ages Open New Possibilities

Upcoming Changes to Interstate Driving Ages Open New Possibilities According to the American Trucking Association, the industry is currently facing a shortage of more than 30,000 drivers; many eligible drivers have been unable to secure cross-country or interstate routes because of insurance regulations that prohibit drivers younger than 21 from crossing state lines. Young drivers are eager to take more lucrative opportunities; insurance companies are often leery of trusting younger drivers for safety concerns, but according to Ken, Vice President of Spirit of CLD training services, â€Å"If they’re getting trained properly and you’re helping them grow up and realize †¦their responsibility and obligation†¦I don’t think age should matter.† He has even trained his daughter, Cheyenne, 18, to follow in his trucking footsteps- she’s looking forward to the potential jobs this change in regulation could open up for her.A bill coming before the Illinois legislature would allow bordering states to partner with one another in individual or group compacts that would allow 18-year-old drivers to cross between participating states. Detractors say a bigger pool of younger drivers would take jobs from more established operators- but the ATA’s deficit of drivers would seem to counter those concerns.

Architecture of any civilization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Architecture of any civilization - Essay Example Architecture is an overt expression of the culture and beliefs of any society. Though the basic principle of manipulation of space in order to control the user of the space is universal, the subtleties may vary with the culture. A study of the various monuments belonging to different cultures that existed at different periods of history will help us understand this idea. We will first travel back to prehistoric times and take a glimpse at the 'Great Stone Tower of Jericho'. By doing so we will try to capture some of the beliefs, priorities and traditions of the people that lived in those times. This monumental structure was built between 8000 and 7000 BC. This tower makes Jericho the oldest known city in the world. The tower also proposes that the people who built it had settled there and were not nomadic food hunters. They also had an organized community in order to carry out such a task. The tower has only one entrance and steps made of well carved stones that lead to the summit. The summit is circular in shape. The structure controls the movement of the user by its single entrance and the steps that allow only up and down movement. The purpose of the tower seems to be defense which appears to be a very important consideration of that community. This could be the reason for building five feet thick walls and ditches around these towers. This shows that the people were in fear of a mighty foe that they had to keep out of their territory, and for the people that built this structure life must have revolved around military and other defense problems of their day. This structure thus gives us a picture of the life of the people in those times. Nothing can match the excellent example of the pyramids when it comes to architecture and space manipulation. The pyramids are also a primary source of information about the life and death beliefs and ceremonies of the people and the kings that ruled them. The primary function of these pyramids was to serve as funerary complexes to the pharaohs who were worshipped as gods. These gigantic monuments speak with the voice of the dead about the enchantment of the people of their times with the afterlife. The preserved body of the pharaoh with the provisions needed for his afterlife was kept in these pyramids. They also served as ceremonial cites and places of worship where the people worshipped the deceased king as God. To this day they stand as an architectural marvel. The size of these structures is massive and the question of how the huge stones were carried up as the building progressed is a mystery. Another interesting part of the pyramid was the Ben Ben which formed the capstone of the pyramid. This was made of shining material like gold or silver. The Ben Ben is believed to represent the rays of the sun. Egyptians worshipped and revered the sun god as the supreme provider of life on earth. The hieroglyphics on the pyramid also talks about the solar eclipse, and other planetary events, telling us how the Egyptians followed the happenings on the sky and related them to life here on earth. The Stepped Pyramid and mortuary precinct of Djoser, Saqqara, Egypt, was built between 2630-2611 BCE. It was built as a grandiose royal tomb. Such monuments represented eternal life after death and were designed to last for. A great amount of money and manpower was pumped in to build these. The shape of the pyramid with the slopes on the four sides

The Perspective of Moral law and Circumcision Essay

The Perspective of Moral law and Circumcision - Essay Example They are ones who do not consider Jesus as God instead believes that a Messiah will be the one to unite everyone towards the kingdom of God. Gentiles on the other hand are those people who are not seen as a descendant of Israel and at the same time people who do not see themselves as one, which often takes their right to worship God. However, they still do worship God based on His teachings told to them through different people chosen by God such as Moses. Now, after clearly setting enough light on what Gentiles and Jews were, it is now easier to know the difference between how each perceived moral law. The latter are those who obeyed the law based on their traditions rather than what God truly meant in His teachings. On the other hand, Gentiles are those who followed Jesus because they put importance in living under no other law but Christ’s (New International Version (NIV Bible) - Version Information - BibleGateway.com. (n.d.)). Thus, when it comes to the topic on circumcision in the olden days, each of them would have different purposes and attitude towards doing so. For the Jews, circumcision, which was one of the clearly stated teachings in the Old Testament was just an act they had to do to be able to avoid persecution from the people. Another reason why they do not really believe in circumcision being a holy and biblical act is because of the fact that even those that are circumcised sin. However, for Gentiles, circumcision is a whole different thing. Even when Gentiles are seen as those who do not have the law and not being the chosen people of God, they do things that are required by the law of God not only obeying by word but at the same time has the law written in their hearts (New International Version (NIV Bible) - Version Information - BibleGateway.com. (n.d.)). Thus, for them, circumcision is an act done to please God by not only getting circumcised but at the same time by observing the other laws and not just pick out the laws that might

Key Components in the Leisure and Recreation Industry Essay Example for Free

Key Components in the Leisure and Recreation Industry Essay Recreational activities fall into six key components, which in turn are divided into sectors. Some activities will fit into more than one category, and other activities are hard to put into any category, such as bridge clubs- are they a sport or a home based leisure activity ? The main components are: * Arts and Entertainment * Home-based Leisure * Countryside recreation * Catering * Heritage and visitor attractions * Sports and physical recreation Arts and Entertainment This is a huge industry that includes many sectors, they are: Arts The arts, apart from commercial cinema and theatre is a precarious industry where losses are easily incurred due to high costs and a very fragmented market. Sponsorship and grants play an important part in these. The public sector plays the most crucial part in funding arts. At the top is the Arts Council, which in 1999 gave out à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½188 million in grants. Much of this came from the National Lottery. Some of it was given out to Regional Arts Boards who then fund local projects. Much of the grant aid is given directly to organisations or individuals. The Arts Council is not the only national public sector organisation to be involved in the arts. One important group is The British Film Institute (BFI) which is responsible for supporting film makers, and the promotion of the British film industry. Local authorities play an important role as well. They employ arts development officers who promote the arts locally and will support local artists. Some larger authorities employ established artists in residence, who work in the area promoting their art and creating commissioned pieces. Local Authorities are major providers of galleries and performance space such as town hall stages or community theatres or even parish halls. In some cases, such as the Lyric Theatre at Hammersmith, London is a part owner of a commercial theatre. Voluntary sector groups also contribute to this sector. Many trusts exist to develop minority arts or provide for specialist audiences. For example, Wolf and Water in Devon is a drama trust dedicated to working with people with special needs. Entertainment Classified as entertainment are popular performing arts and spectacles. The voluntary sector is important here as nationwide participation in amateur dramatics and music is a popular pursuit. Public provision is also evident but has changed in recent years. Thirty years ago most town halls and civic entertainments programme of films, theatre and musicals. This has largely disappeared now and has been replaced by events programmes that are organised by various departments. For example, many sports centres will host travelling theatre and ballet companies such as the Royal Exchange Theatre Group, while arts officers will book in tourism exhibitions. In the streets and parks outside, groups are invited to put on events such as the hot-air balloon events in Bristols Parks. It is the private sector that monopolises entertainment. There is a flourishing small-business sector that includes pub entertainments and single artists such as party and street entertainers, but the bulk of the market is contained within three areas: 1.cinemas 2. Theatre 3. Stadia/arenas Cinema-was very popular in the first half of the 20th century. Then when colour televisions and video players appeared cinemas started to lose there appeal to the public. Cinema companies were not refurbishing their buildings, most of which were built in the 1930s, and were finding profit by selling them off as bingo halls. Some survived by aiming at niche markets(e.g. Corner House in Manchester). These art house cinemas show foreign films. The main market is for commercial English-language films. In the 1980s there was a major review of how films were presented. This resulted in multiplexes being invented. They are equipped with the following features: * Modern luxurious buildings with high-quality projection and sound * Multi screens to show move films than one * Easy access often at out-of-town centres * Good customer care The closest multiplex cinema around is the Warner Brothers Village in Longwell Green. This complex has all the features shown above Theatre-the London theatres are highly profitable with a city audience and a huge tourist market. Even then, they increasingly stick to a formula of musicals or familiar plays with big name actors. For example Chitty Chitty Bang Bang was shown at Londons Palindrome with Michael Ball starring in it. The package largely consists of touring West End shows, nostalgia and tribute bands, comedians and spectacles like circus and ice shows. The main London Theatre companies are: * Delfont Mackintosh Theatres * Ambassador Theatre Group * Really Useful Theatres * SFX (Apollo) Apollo leisure is the leading national chain Arenas and Stadia- these are large multi-purpose buildings for very large audiences. Arenas(indoor) for example are likely to put on conferences and trade exhibitions as well as concerts, while stadia(outdoor) are designed especially for sport. An example of a stadia is Ashton Gate home to Bristol City Football Club. Many arenas are owned by Local Authorities or development corporations. Good examples of this are the various halls and centres in Birmingham ,including the National Arena. Sports and physical recreation These activities can be grouped as follows: * Informal recreation(play, walking, gardening) * Competitive sport (football, tennis, golf) * Outdoor activities (sailing, climbing) * Health and fitness (jogging, yoga) Many activities can often be put into more than one category. For example, swimming in the sea is informal, swimming for a club is competitive, swimming in a conventional pool can be seen as health and fitness. Each component has a different profile in the type of facilities and services it produces. Informal physical recreation or exercise- this is the most popular activity nationally. Nobody knows the hours children spend playing or adults spend gardening. We pursue these activities because they are cheap, available and dont require a lot of skill. The enjoyment we get from them often depends on the environment we do them in. Competitive Sport-most people associate sport with the professional game. This means they are spectators, and it is the spectators money that underpins professional sport. Facilities were often run down to the extent that some were dangerous for crowds, e.g. Hillsborough 1989. Providers have found that profits increase when standards of customer care and corporate hospitality are improved. This has led to the building of a new generation of high-class stadia and race tracks and other facilities where the key services are: * Presentation of the core event * Merchandising * Catering * Safety and security Amateur sport is geared around participation and voluntary clubs. As land and buildings are expensive, many clubs use facilities provided by Local Authorities. Many outdoor sports clubs have their own facilities although there is an even greater number of players who use recreation grounds. There are about 78,000 pitches in the country. Thirty years ago amateur sport was largely centred on outdoor team games. Competitive sport means participation and developing skills and there is a sizeable industry for coaches and instructors. Despite its profile, competitive sport is on the decline and organisations like Sport England are concerned that as a nation we are losing our sporting skills and becoming less fit and healthy. For example, many governing bodies have big school-based programmes, and Local Authorities will run schemes in deprived areas where people cannot afford to play sport or go to health suites. Outdoor Activities-there are over a thousand centres in the UK which specialise in providing outdoor adventure holidays. Facility provision is also essential for outdoor sports, meaning the upkeep of the environment, and this is regulated by the organisations under the Countryside Agency umbrella, such as the Forestry Commission, Local Authorities or National Trust. For most participants activity in the natural world is occasional, and more time will be spent in training in built facilities such as pools or climbing walls. Profitable areas such as skiing, sailing, private sector companies are the main providers. Health and Fitness- there are now at least 2,500 private health and fitness clubs in the UK- it is a boom industry that many young people see as the exciting place to work in leisure. Private sector will increasingly dominate the market and eventually also manage and invest in public sector facilities on behalf of Local Authorities. The central product of these clubs is the fitness room consisting of cardiovascular equipment and perhaps free weights, and frequently areas with small pools, jacuzzis and saunas.. Heritage and visitor attractions The heritage industry concerns buildings and materials that have historical value. Thirty years ago these were largely stately homes, castles, ruins such as Stonehenge and battlefields. Heritage was often about how the rich and famous had lived or what they had collected, or about culture(e.g. Shakespeare). Now it has expanded to include a much wider interpretation of historical value. Whether the attraction is a theme park or museum, the organisers will do their best to employ all the techniques of facility management to look after the customer and make the product interesting. In a theme park the excitement of the rides is a key feature and bringing new and more exciting rides brings in more customers. The difference between a visitor attraction and a heritage site is that the latter involves considerable work behind the scenes which the public never sees. The most popular tourist attractions are: * Museums and galleries- British Museum * Theme parks- Blackpool Pleasure Beach * Historic houses and monuments- Tower of London * Wildlife parks and zoos- London Zoo Many heritage sites are owned by Trusts and limited companies that have been set up to manage individual sites, while many stately homes are owned and run by two big organisations: * English Heritage- is the national body responsible for the management, promotion and conservation of 400 archaeological sites and the historic environment * The National Trust- is a trust set up in 1895 to preserve places of historic interest or natural beauty. Its sites include a range from Paul McCartneys teenage home to stately homes like Waddesdon Manor Museums-are not usually run by the private sector, largely because of high costs. Many museums started life as private collections which were later donated to the nation or the local community. Libraries-apart from their lending their services which we will look at later, they are largely involved in the heritage sector. They have a back-room role of collecting important documents including maps, and making these available to the public. This is known as the records and archives service. Catering Leisure catering includes pubs and clubs, restaurants, cafes and takeaways. Its firmly placed in the private sector with some exceptions. A catering company provides a service according to the specification of the client and often under the clients name. Many leisure centres and theatres buy in service in this way. The catering sector has various components that make eating out an enjoyable experience: the provision of food and drink; entertainment, such as jazz at Pizza Express, games; and security in the form of door staff. Eating out is an increasingly important and available leisure experience. The fast-food business is booming with a growth rate of 30 per cent. This growth is at the expense of takeaways and cafes, and especially of pubs and clubs. Fast food tends to be run by chains that can make economies of scale by producing the same product in each outlet. Many breweries have followed this trend and operate chains like Harvester restaurants within their pubs. In contrast cafes, restaurants and takeaways tend to be run and owned by family businesses. Countryside recreation The countryside is the natural, national playground and one which is used by walkers, ramblers and those involved in more active outdoor activities. A survey in 1998 by the National Centre for Social Research showed that 1,427 million day visits to the countryside were made and a further 241 million to the coast. Like any leisure facility such usage will have an impact which in turn will lessen, and even threaten, the leisure experience itself. Organisations working in countryside recreation are therefore primarily stewards who maintain, manage and regulate the environment and also produce information and education. An important organisation funded by the Countryside Commission is the National Parks Authority. This is responsible for the regulation and interpretative service inside twelve National Parks, which are designated areas of significant natural beauty and wilderness. The Local Authority has a part to play in managing and regulating country parks. In many cases it also owns the land and will act as landlord to any tenants in the park, such as farmers. Home-based leisure This is cheap, easy and relaxing. The equipment most popularly used are: radios, videos, TV sets, gardening materials and home fitness machines is normally provided by the private sector. The main exceptions are the library lending services in the public sector. Except for broadcasting this component is retail based. As the internet is more widely used, shopping for leisure on the net is likely to increase. Free services like Tesco mean more people are using the net.

An Observation of Virgils Aeneid, Book II :: Virgil Aeneid Essays

An Observation of Virgil's Aeneid, Book II The Romans, unlike the Greeks were not gifted in abstract thought. They constructed no original system of philosophy, invented no major literary forms, and made no scientific discoveries. Yet, they excelled in the art of government and empire building, they created a workable world-state and developed skills in administration, law, and practical affairs. In the Punic Wars, the Roman republic defeated the Carthaginians in North Africa and Rome inherited the Pergamene Kingdom from the last of the Attalids in 133 B.C. Rome became heir to the legacy of the Hellenistic world of the Greeks. The Hellenistic period which lasted 300 years in is noted by the death of Alexander in 323 B.C. It is marked by its rich, sophisticated and diverse culture. Many Romans were eager to merge with this Greek culture in order to exhibit the dominance of their rule over conquered societies. This exhibition of dominance was the primary motivation of the Roman desire to possess fine works of Greek Art. Whereas, other Romans, were convinced that the pursuit of the assimilation of foreign cultures would only harm the republic. During this time, much social disintegration and unhindered individualism threatened political stability. However, the adoption of Greek art for Roman needs was very popular. An educated Roman was well versed in the history of Greek Art and was socially compelled to collect Greek art for personal embellishment. The modernization of the old Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia is an example of the new Roman attitude toward art and architecture as Greek artists migrated in vast numbers to the new capital of the world. Roman generals and their quest to establish Rome as the new unchallenged capital of the world justified the expense of replanning the old sanctuary. This accomplishment would bring them personal glory and uplift the majestic status of Roman people. Roman architecture benefited as the city's wealth grew as other leaders contributed to the expansion of new monuments. Lucias Cornelius Sculla, (82-78 B.C.) led the Romans is Social War and later became dictator and master of the city of Rome. He brought Corinthian columns form the temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens to renew the shrine of the Roman Jupiter in the capital. This act symbolized the transferal of spiritual power from the aristocracy of the Senate to autocratic leaders, and art began to be shaped by their preferences. This satisfied the Roman desire for grandiose architecture by being the model of Hellenistic majestic ornate style.

Analytical Essay – Lochie Leonard

Awkwardness, rudeness and moodiness are stereotypes which are used to represent teenagers. In his novel â€Å"Locke Leonard the Human Torpedo', Tim Wanton explores the emotional development of teenagers. In the novel he represents teenagers as reckless. This is achieved through Locale's inappropriate actions, rude behavior and his bad language. The novel displays teenagers as reckless through their inappropriate behavior.In the chapter ‘Getting Serious' Locke and Vicki are alone in her house and they engage n sexual activities disregarding the possible consequences. This is also shown later on in the book in the chapter ‘Ocean Beach' where they again act without thinking. The two chapters give the reader a clear example that teenagers can be reckless due to their inappropriate behavior. At school Locke displays rude behavior towards his teachers.In the chapter ‘Everybody's Favorite Spread' Locke is in class studying his least favorite subject, Math, and is rude to his teacher by omitting to call him sir (pap-18). Also in the chapter ‘True Torpedoing' Locke is in his woodwork class and once again displays dude behavior and insolence to his teacher by suggesting that the teacher ‘does his block (pap-31). This insulting comment could enrage an already hostile teacher even more and is therefore reckless.In the first two weeks Locke has already acquired a bad reputation for himself. Locale's rude behavior is very risky. Teenagers are represented as reckless due to their use of inappropriate or bad language. Locke has been influenced to use bad language after reading a book about sexual development. In the chapter ‘Everyone's Favorite Spread' Locke is being bullied. Whilst being bullied he retaliates by calling them ‘a bunch of yellow vulvas! (pap), which might provoke them to attack him, rather than trying to calm them down, which would be more sensible. Locale's use of language clearly represents teens as reckless. In this novel Tim Wanton represents teenagers as reckless because of their inappropriate actions, rude behavior and bad language. He has focused on emotional development in adolescents. While this is only one aspect of the challenges faced by teens, the author has represented common stereotypes in characters and their actions to describe teenagers.

Whole Foods Market SWOT

Whole Foods Market is one of the largest retailers of organic food products in the world. The company is successful because of its skilful growth strategy, huge product variety, and big profits. Whole Foods Market’s motto is â€Å"Whole Foods, Whole People, Whole Planet†, and this motto, as well as the core values, are very important for the company’s strategy and operating practices. However, the company does not execute the motto completely due to its poor international operations, which is one of the biggest weaknesses of Whole Foods Market. One of the opportunities of the company is the superiority in the market of high demand for the organic products. Increase in the competition in the market is one of the biggest threats for Whole Foods Market.Firm’s StrengthsWhole Foods Market grew from a local market to one of the largest organic product retailer around the world. By 2008, Whole Foods Market operated and owned 276 stores in the United States and in ternationally. The company’s expansion strategy consists mostly of acquisitions of other companies. One of the biggest and most important acquisitions was the acquisition of Wild Oats stores, which gave Whole Foods Market opportunity to operate with large scale stores and with less competition in that segment of market.The company offers a huge variety of products which includes: grocery, bakery, poultry and meat, seafood, deli, wines, cheese, and household products. The regular average size of a Whole Foods Market store is around 45,000 to 60,000 sq ft. In the bigger stores, which size up from 60,000 to 80,000 sq ft, they offer even a bigger variety of products and catering service. Example of this would be the Austin 78,000 sq ft store which included hundreds types of cheese, beers, wines, and seafood items.Whole Foods Market’s revenue was rapidly growing since the early 1990’s with an increase of 30%, and 20% increase since year 2000. By 2007 the company reco rded sales of around $6.6 billion. The revenue growth let the company to continue the expansions and acquisition of many more stores. Whole Foods Market acquired 134 stores since 1991 through 15 acquisitions.Firm’s WeaknessesWhole Foods Market has three stores in Canada, and six stores in the United Kingdom. The possession of such few stores internationally, the company is not able to arrive at the effect of economies of scale in distribution and purchasing. Because of weak operations internationally, the company’s prices are high, therefore lacking the company to compete with other international companies which have a larger operations scale.OpportunitiesWhole Foods Market is in a good market segment because of the rapid growth of demand for the organic products around the world. Consumers tend to slowly start preferring organic products to the regular packaged products. The organic market is growing very fast every year and everywhere around the world. Because of the increase in demand for organic products, which Whole Foods Market supplies, the company is going to experience an increase in sales and revenues.ThreatsSince the market for organic products is becoming more popular and growing, there are more players involved in the market. There are a lot of small companies and huge corporations who are entering the same market as Whole Foods Market, and some of them could be considered a respectful threat. Small supermarkets that supply organic foods, specialty supermarkets and restaurants are the small competitors. Wal-Mart on other hand is a potential strong competitor who announced in 2006 that the company is going to focus on organic segment, and is able to provide the consumers with low price organic products.Strenghts Skilful growth strategy Huge product variety Big profitsWeaknesses Poor international operationsOpportunity Market leadership in high demand marketThreats Increase of Competition

COLLEGE PAPER for All Academic Levels

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Maximum Likelihood Estimation Examples

Maximum Likelihood Estimation Examples Suppose that we have a random sample from a population of interest.  We may have a theoretical model for the way that the population is distributed.  However, there may be several population parameters of which we do not know the values.  Maximum likelihood estimation is one way to determine these unknown parameters.   The basic idea behind maximum likelihood estimation is that we determine the values of these unknown parameters.  We do this in such a way to maximize an associated joint probability density function or probability mass function.  We will see this in more detail in what follows.  Then we will calculate some examples of maximum likelihood estimation. Steps for Maximum Likelihood Estimation The above discussion can be summarized by the following steps: Start with a sample of independent random variables X1, X2, . . . Xn from a common distribution each with probability density function f(x;ÃŽ ¸1, . . .ÃŽ ¸k).  The thetas are unknown parameters.Since our sample is independent, the probability of obtaining the specific sample that we observe is found by multiplying our probabilities together.  This gives us a likelihood function L(ÃŽ ¸1, . . .ÃŽ ¸k)   f( x1 ;ÃŽ ¸1, . . .ÃŽ ¸k) f( x2 ;ÃŽ ¸1, . . .ÃŽ ¸k) . . .  f( xn ;ÃŽ ¸1, . . .ÃŽ ¸k) ÃŽ   f( xi ;ÃŽ ¸1, . . .ÃŽ ¸k).Next, we use Calculus to find the values of theta that maximize our likelihood function L.  More specifically, we differentiate the likelihood function L with respect to ÃŽ ¸ if there is a single parameter.  If there are multiple parameters we calculate partial derivatives of L with respect to each of the theta parameters.To continue the process of maximization, set the derivative of L (or partial derivatives) equal to zero and solve for theta.We can then use o ther techniques (such as a second derivative test) to verify that we have found a maximum for our likelihood function. Example Suppose we have a package of seeds, each of which has a constant probability p of success of germination.  We plant n of these and count the number of those that sprout.  Assume that each seed sprouts independently of the others.  How do we determine the maximum likelihood estimator of the parameter p? We begin by noting that each seed is modeled by a Bernoulli distribution with a success of p. We let X be either 0 or 1, and the probability mass function for a single seed is f( x ; p ) px (1 - p)1 - x.   Our sample consists of n  Ã‚  different Xi, each of with has a Bernoulli distribution.  The  seeds that sprout have Xi 1 and the seeds that fail to sprout have Xi 0.   The likelihood function is given by: L ( p ) ÃŽ   pxi (1 - p)1 - xi We see that it is possible to rewrite the likelihood function by using the laws of exponents.   L ( p )   pÃŽ £ xi (1 - p)n - ÃŽ £ xi Next we differentiate this function with respect to p.  We assume that the values for all of the Xi are known, and hence are constant.  To differentiate the likelihood function we need to use the product rule along with the power rule: L ( p )   ÃŽ £ xip-1 ÃŽ £ xi (1 - p)n - ÃŽ £ xi - (n - ÃŽ £ xi )pÃŽ £ xi (1 - p)n-1 - ÃŽ £ xi We rewrite some of the negative exponents and have: L ( p ) (1/p) ÃŽ £ xipÃŽ £ xi (1 - p)n - ÃŽ £ xi - 1/(1 - p) (n - ÃŽ £ xi )pÃŽ £ xi (1 - p)n - ÃŽ £ xi [(1/p) ÃŽ £ xi  - 1/(1 - p) (n - ÃŽ £ xi)]ipÃŽ £ xi (1 - p)n - ÃŽ £ xi Now, in order to continue the process of maximization, we set this derivative equal to zero and solve for p: 0 [(1/p) ÃŽ £ xi  - 1/(1 - p) (n - ÃŽ £ xi)]ipÃŽ £ xi (1 - p)n - ÃŽ £ xi Since p and (1- p) are nonzero we have that 0 (1/p) ÃŽ £ xi  - 1/(1 - p) (n - ÃŽ £ xi). Multiplying both sides of the equation by p(1- p) gives us: 0 (1 - p) ÃŽ £ xi  - p (n - ÃŽ £ xi). We expand the right hand side and see: 0   ÃŽ £ xi  - p ÃŽ £ xi  - p n pÃŽ £ xi   ÃŽ £ xi - p n. Thus ÃŽ £ xi p n and (1/n)ÃŽ £ xi   p.  This means that the maximum likelihood estimator of p is a sample mean.  More specifically this is the sample proportion of the seeds that germinated.  This is perfectly in line with what intuition would tell us.  In order to determine the proportion of seeds that will germinate, first consider a sample from the population of interest. Modifications to the Steps There are some modifications to the above list of steps.  For example, as we have seen above, is typically worthwhile to spend some time using some algebra to simplify the expression of the likelihood function.  The reason for this is to make the differentiation easier to carry out. Another change to the above list of steps is to consider natural logarithms. The maximum for the function L will occur at the same point as it will for the natural logarithm of L.  Thus maximizing ln L is equivalent to maximizing the function L. Many times, due to the presence of exponential functions in L, taking the natural logarithm of L will greatly simplify some of our work. Example We see how to use the natural logarithm by revisiting the example from above.  We begin with the likelihood function: L ( p )   pÃŽ £ xi (1 - p)n - ÃŽ £ xi . We then use our logarithm laws and see that: R( p ) ln L( p ) ÃŽ £ xi ln p (n - ÃŽ £ xi) ln(1 - p). We already see that the derivative is much easier to calculate: R( p ) (1/p)ÃŽ £ xi - 1/(1 - p)(n - ÃŽ £ xi) . Now, as before, we set this derivative equal to zero and multiply both sides by p (1 - p): 0 (1- p ) ÃŽ £ xi -  p(n - ÃŽ £ xi) . We solve for p and find the same result as before. The use of the natural logarithm of L(p) is helpful in another way.  It is much easier to calculate a second derivative of R(p) to verify that we truly do have a maximum at the point (1/n)ÃŽ £ xi   p. Example For another example, suppose that we have a random sample X1, X2, . . . Xn from a population that we are modelling with an exponential distribution.  The probability density function for one random variable is of the form f( x ) ÃŽ ¸-1 e -x/ÃŽ ¸ The likelihood function is given by the joint probability density function. This is a product of several of these density functions: L(ÃŽ ¸) ÃŽ   ÃŽ ¸-1 e -xi/ÃŽ ¸   ÃŽ ¸-n e -ÃŽ £ xi/ÃŽ ¸    Once again it is helpful to consider the natural logarithm of the likelihood function.  Differentiating this will require less work than differentiating the likelihood function: R(ÃŽ ¸) ln L(ÃŽ ¸) ln [ÃŽ ¸-n e -ÃŽ £ xi/ÃŽ ¸] We use our laws of logarithms and obtain: R(ÃŽ ¸) ln L(ÃŽ ¸) - n ln ÃŽ ¸Ã‚   -ÃŽ £xi/ÃŽ ¸ We differentiate with respect to ÃŽ ¸ and have: R(ÃŽ ¸)   - n / ÃŽ ¸Ã‚   ÃŽ £xi/ÃŽ ¸2 Set this derivative equal to zero and we see that: 0 - n / ÃŽ ¸Ã‚   ÃŽ £xi/ÃŽ ¸2. Multiply both sides by ÃŽ ¸2 and the result is: 0 - n ÃŽ ¸Ã‚   ÃŽ £xi. Now use algebra to solve for ÃŽ ¸: ÃŽ ¸ (1/n)ÃŽ £xi. We see from this that the sample mean is what maximizes the likelihood function.  The parameter ÃŽ ¸ to fit our model should simply be the mean of all of our observations. Connections There are other types of estimators.  One alternate type of estimation is called an unbiased estimator.  For this type, we must calculate the expected value of our statistic and determine if it matches a corresponding parameter.

Anything Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

Anything - Essay Example House ownership grants one access to opportunities for families such as neighborhoods with good schools, jobs and public services. In order for one to get good housing the amount of money he is paid becomes a factor. This essay will examine the trends in housing and the financial position of an individual in details. There is a large gap in house ownership between different people which has continued to increase though barriers in homeownership for the minority groups were lifted long time ago. The current housing policy now targets minority homeownership with the specific intention of closing the gap in house ownership among different groups. The casual expansion of urban land which was traditionally professed as an significant way through which the poorest inhabitants of the urban centers got shelter. This has changed since most of the middle, and high-income households tend to buy land casually for housing. It is clear that those workers who are able to learn new working skills especially in technology will benefit from higher salaries. But on the other hand those who are used to carrying out routine jobs which can be handled by computers and robots will be competing with few jobs or will be pushed into low-skill jobs and hence it will be difficult for them to afford buying better houses (Tal ly 22). It is difficult for the middle-income people to purchase a house in the formal market. This is due to their low-income. This in turn forces them to construct low cost structures as their homes and expenses and can increase the budgets of the developer beyond the monetary capability of the scheme. The cost of land on the other hand, has increased greatly hence this leads to increase the housing gap. Those people who earn larger amount of money posses the ability to construct several houses, which they in turn they rent to the low-income earners at high costs In most parts of the country it evident

Japanese Multinationals and the Management of Human Resources in Essay

Japanese Multinationals and the Management of Human Resources in United Kingdom Subsidiaries - Essay Example In the present day and age, the conduct of business leans increasingly towards international operations and managing human resources is increasingly critical to the success of business and . However, published research supports the notion that construction of human resource management for a business takes place within strong national boundaries. Thus, although information and communication technologies continue to transform organisational structures and business processes, breaking down organisational and geographic boundaries, national human resource management traditions engrained in the culture of a multinational headquartered in a country often intermingle with culture and traditions of the country in which a subsidiary is located. Although multinationals from a host country retain elements of traditional and cultural values, including those from Japan, United States of America and elsewhere, it is difficult for multinational corporations to exhibit core traditions from Japan, Am erica, etc. in subsidiaries located overseas for managing employees. When expanding overseas, a failure to integrate successfully managers and other key personnel from host countries into the management process of foreign subsidiaries is likely to present severe negative outcomes for a parent company. After all, foreign multinationals must serve clients in a host nation, comply with its laws and compete effectively in a nation with its own traditions, culture, business values and needs. A multinational must have due regard for national culture and organisational culture in a subsidiary, which must cater to the locals while shaping effectively the collective. Material and spiritual culture in a host country together with aspirations of employees, their preferences and tastes influence the treatment of employees and success of a subsidiary. (Keeley, 2001, Pp. 15 – 20). Multinational enterprises must have due regard for local employment laws, industrial relations and ethics

Reflection 9 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reflection 9 - Essay Example Such companies as Walmart, Walgreens and others are proving that healthy and fresh food sales can bring even higher revenue than those of fast or junk one (Obama 116). Gradually, companies start to sell more healthy products, which, as a result, become more affordable to people and the demand grows. Consequently, manufacturers also receive more money. As such, â€Å"healthier food options make good business sense† (Obama 116). On the other hand, the idea of healthy eating and lifestyle should be actively promoted among ordinary people, especially children. The latter should understand its benefits and effects on their general well-being and even future life and success. The idea of cooperation, or as I decided to call it – â€Å"joint efforts†, is related to original complexity of the obesity problem which has nationwide dimensions nowadays. Instead of, for instance, investing into curing diseases caused by obesity (diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, risks of heart stroke, etc.), big companies could monetarily support production and spread of healthy food items so it became cheaper and more available for people â€Å"living in low-income areas† (Khullar 126). Thus, step by step â€Å"good† food could replace â€Å"high-fat, high-calorie, low-nutrient† (Khullar 126) menus of shops and restaurants in preference to fresh and useful meals. Additionally, the reduction of junk and fast food advertising would contribute to the promotion of healthy lifestyle. Hence, in the essay I described the ideas of healthy eating awareness and joint efforts needed to promote it - two most capturing thoughts expressed in Michelle Obamas and Dhruv Khullars articles – directed at resolving not only physical but social problem of

Consequences Of Cell Phone Use While Driving English Language Essay

Consequences Of Cell Phone Use While Driving English Language Essay Cell phone use while driving should be illegal everywhere because 1) it causes major distraction, 2) it can cause harm to the driver and others near the driver, and 3) it shows negative influence on young people. In more ways than one, using a cell phone while driving has been proven to be a dangerous thing for people to do. The cases of fatal automobile accidents, related to cell phone use while driving, have risen dramatically over the past few years. The majority of these accidents are younger people, usually 25 years of age and younger. A new study confirms that the reaction time of cell phone users slows dramatically, increasing the risk of accidents and tying up traffic in general, and when young adults use cell phones while driving, theyre as bad as sleepy septuagenarians (Britt). David Strayer, a psychology professor at the University of Utah says if you put a 20-year-old behind the wheel with a cell phone, their reaction times are the same as a 70-year-old driver who is not using a cell phone. Its like instantly aging a large number of drivers (Britt). The use of a cell phone while driving causes more negative incidents than positive incidents. It causes road rage from other drivers, traffic jams, minor accidents and even fatal accidents: According to the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, the journals publisher, cell phone distraction causes 2,600 deaths and 330,000 injuries in the United States every year. . . . Drivers talking on cell phones were 18 percent slower to react to brake lights, the new study found. In a minor bright note, they also kept a 12 percent greater following distance. But they also took 17 percent longer to regain the speed they lost when they braked. That frustrates everyone. . . . Once drivers on cell phones hit the brakes, it takes them longer to get back into the normal flow of traffic. The net result is they are impeding the overall flow of traffic. (Britt) Now, after looking into more research, it seems that cell phone use while driving is more dangerous than most people make it out to be; teenagers seem to be the worst at this. The cell phone has many applications on them now days and some are more distracting than others. For example, a young girl is driving down the road at 55 miles per hour and her cell phone rings. She reaches across the car to grab it, takes a quick look at the screen to see who it is, looks back up and sees she is about to rear end another vehicle. Even though her reaction time is slowed from normal, she slams the breaks on just in time to avoid a major collision. Only minor damage is done to both vehicles and luckily no one is hurt. This young girl only took a quick look off the road, but still put herself and others in danger. Now, another young girl is driving down a road, in a school zone, doing only 15 miles per hour and her cell phone goes off as well, only hers is a text message from her boyfriend. She lo oks down at the screen, eyes off the road, same as girl number one, only her eyes are off the road for a longer period of time. She takes time to read the text, only to briefly look at the road, and looks back at the screen to send a text message back. With one hand on the wheel, one hand on the cell phone, texting, and her eyes on the cell phone, she hits a young child and her mother walking across the street. This accident just so happens to be a fatal one. Next, let us talk about hands free cell phones. People may and probably will argue these are not dangerous or distracting at all, but in fact, they are just as distracting. Whether a person is texting or just talking, their concentration is broken. People think that if they are just talking and listening, with eyes still on the road, not taking them off, that they are just as alert as a driver not talking on a cell phone. According to Strayer and his colleagues, those people are wrong. This is what Strayer and his colleagues found: In 2001, they found that even hands-free cell phone use distracted drivers. In 2003, they revealed a reason: Drivers look but do not see, because they are distracted by the conversation. The scientists also found previously that chatty motorists are less adept than drunken drivers with blood alcohol levels exceeding 0.08. (Britt) A man named Arthur Kramer, who led an Illinois study, stated these words: With younger adults, everything got worse, . . . . Both young adults and older adults tended to show deficits in performance. They made more errors in detecting important changes and they took longer to react to the changes' (Britt). It was documented by Robert Roy Britt, the publisher of this article, that the impaired reactions involved seconds, not just fractions of a second, so stopping distances increased by car-lengths. A study, done by Strayer, showed the following results: The latest study used high-tech simulators. It included people aged 18 to 25 and another group aged 65 to 74. Elderly drivers were slower to react when talking on the phone, too. The simulations uncovered a twofold increase in the number of rear-end collisions by drivers using cell phones. Older drivers seem to be more cautious overall, however. Older drivers were slightly less likely to get into accidents than younger drivers, Strayer said. They tend to have a greater following distance. Their reactions are impaired, but they are driving so cautiously they were less likely to smash into somebody. But in real life, he added, older drivers are significantly more likely to be rear-ended because of their slow speed. (Britt) Not only is it a problem with the younger people using cell phones while driving, but older people as well. Even though, the older people had better reaction time, it is still dangerous, regardless. No matter how cautious a person is, a distraction is a distraction. It takes away from the important things that need to be focused on and still poses threats and dangers to all those involved. Okay, let us focus on texting while driving. As said before, texting while driving takes a lot more concentration than just simply talking. Not only does it take a persons mental concentration away, but physical concentration as well, also known as the eye site. It takes more time to text someone than it does to simply answer a call. People are killed in fatal accidents due to the use of cell phones while driving and the rise in numbers is just ridiculous. In Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, a young girls mother was killed, while driving, but she was not the person using the cell phone, the other driver was. A story, done on this accident, by Doug Warner from News 9, seems to have touched some peoples hearts: Jennifer Smiths mother was killed at a northwest Oklahoma City intersection less than a year ago. You never know how irreplaceable your mother is and how much of you your mother is. The day your mother passes away, youll never be the same, Smith said. Linda Doyle would have turned 62 this past Sunday. But on September 3, 2008, she was hit and killed on Northwest Expressway by a driver who was distracted by his cell phone. Every day I want to yell at people and tell them to put the phone down, Smith said. Now Lindas smiling face is on billboards across the country including one along Interstate 40 near downtown, which towers above drivers who continue to risk Death by Cell Phone. Awareness is always the best approach up front to see if you can get people to change habits, but some youre not going to get to, said David Koeneke with the National Safety Council. Koeneke said the billboards arent the perfect solution but are certainly a step in educating the public to the dangers of mixing cell phones and driving. Smith, who often returns to her native Oklahoma City, hopes to help warn Oklahoma drivers and make a difference in the state by sharing the facts, like how texting and driving is considered worse than drunk driving. I dont want to be on the road with 100 million drunk drivers, Smith said. Kansas, Louisiana, Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico and Texas have all passed some level of cell phone restrictions. Missouri and Oklahoma have not. Smith said she isnt sure what Oklahoma is waiting on. In Oklahoma, I know all the bills have been thrown out or squashed, and Im just hoping when they see the neighboring states are doing this, that theyll jump on board, Smith said. It seems like you have to hear the horror stories before changes will be made, Im afraid. Horror stories like Linda Doyles death by a cell phone. My mother is gone and Im only 35, Smith said. Chris Hill, who caused the crash, never served a day in jail, but he said he now lives with a heavy burden for the rest of his life. Right then, I was screaming, witnesses coming up holding me up because I couldnt handle it. I knew what had happened. I knew right then I had killed her, Hill said. After reading a story like this, one would think it would convince more people to take more caution with using cell phones while driving. Sadly, it does not really do anything. People will show sympathy and say things referring to how awful it is that something like that happened, but just as soon as it is all said and done, the majority of them are already back on the road . . . using their cell phones while they are driving. In addition to the previous statements, what other things are said about cell phone use while driving. For instance, the cell phone use, or as some call it, multi-tasking, has been referred to as aggressive driving. Dr. Leon James says this about it: There is a tendency to think that multi-tasking while driving is the cause of driver inattention or distraction. This belief leads to demands for new laws that restrict or ban the use of in-car communication devices such as phones and computers. But the correct argument is that multi-tasking can lead to driver distraction when drivers havent properly trained themselves to use the new car gadgets. This is true for older devices like the familiar radio and CD as well as the new, like GPS, phones, and e-mail. So its true that multi-tasking becomes the occasion for drivers to make more mistakes, when they fail to train themselves properly. This increased training is a joint responsibility of the individual driver and the government. Multi-tasking behind the wheel is a matter of degree and all drivers are responsible for determining when they need additional self-training activities. When drivers overstep this line, they become socially and legally responsible. Drivers who allow themselves to be distracted by their multi-tasking activities are increasing the risk factor for themselves and imposing that dangerous limit on otherspassengers, other drivers, pedestrians. This increased risk to which others are subjected is thus similar to other driver behavior that are considered aggressive and illegal: going through red lights, failing to yield, exceeding safe speed limits, reckless weaving, drinking and driving, driving sleepy or drowsy, road rage, etc. Even though Dr. Leon James believes this: But the correct argument is that multi-tasking can lead to driver distraction when drivers havent properly trained themselves to use the new car gadgets, the so-called multi-tasking should still become illegal. No matter how well-trained a person thinks they are at multi-tasking while driving, their concentration is still broken and taken away from the road. As soon as a person takes their eyes off the road to answer a call or respond to a text, they are automatically putting their lives and everyone elses lives around them, in danger. How many people are going to have to be seriously injured or even killed before people start to realize how dangerous cell phone use while driving actually is? People run red lights, break speed limits and go all over the road when intoxicated. The same things happen when people use cell phones behind the wheel, so what exactly is the difference? The majority of automobile accidents, mainly during the daytime, are caused by the distraction of the cell phone. Jennifer Claerr published an article in May of 2007 about the dangers and effects of cell phone use behind the wheel. Jennifer found this: A recent study has shown that while dialing was found to be the most common cause of crashes (one has to take his eyes off the road to dial) the simple act of talking on a cell phone, even on a headset, was a proven distraction and caused accidents. Cell phone users are four times more likely than non-cell phone users to be involved in an accident. In these studies, the conversation itself was as distracting as dialing or calling up messages. People who talk on a cell phone while driving develop an extremely narrow focus, and become unaware of many of the things happening around them on the road. (Claerr) After taking a look at just this excerpt, it should make people think. There have been many people that have been either cut off, been hit, or have been close to being hit by a driver using a cell phone. Claerr expresses another opinion of her own that most people should most definitely agree with: A lot of advocates of cell phone use while driving cite that some studies have shown the total number of accidents and fatalities from cell phone use is small. However, they miss the point. Cell phone use while driving is a totally unnecessary activity, and if even only one fatality is caused by it, the practice is unacceptable. As a result of people using cell phones while driving, kids, parents, and people of all ages are being hurt and even killed. How do people expect to drive safely when their attention is focused on other things besides the road and other drivers around them? As a result, many people are hurt badly and even killed, on a daily basis because of the distractions caused by cell phones use while driving. How many fatalities are going to happen before people realize how dangerous their habits can be? How many children are going to have to lose their parents, or for that matter, how many parents are going to have to lose their children before this danger can be stopped? No one will ever know the answer. All that can be done, as of now, is to try the best ways that can be done.